Call For Paper - Upcoming Conferences
Research Article | Open Access | Download PDF
Volume 13 | Issue 5 | Year 2026 | Article Id. IJCE-V13I5P120 | DOI : https://doi.org/10.14445/23488352/IJCE-V13I5P120

Recent Advances in the Seismic Performance of Waterfront Sheet Pile Walls. A Review

Sara Malhis, Nawar Kadan

Received Revised Accepted Published
17 Feb 2026 25 Mar 2026 29 Apr 2026 29 May 2026

Citation :

Sara Malhis, Nawar Kadan, "Recent Advances in the Seismic Performance of Waterfront Sheet Pile Walls. A Review," International Journal of Civil Engineering, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 309-325, 2026. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.14445/23488352/IJCE-V13I5P120

Abstract

This paper presents the latest advances in the study of waterfront, earthquake-prone sheet piles. The review sums up recent findings on how waterfront sheet-pile walls behave in earthquakes that cause soil liquefaction. It is necessary to know this to protect coastal structures. The seismic dangers to these walls are increasing. This review considers five aspects in the field of seismic performance of sheet pile walls: seismic lateral displacement, the effects of liquefaction, bending moments, settlements, and tilting. The research methodology depends on reviewing recent studies conducted between 2020 and 2026. The systematic literature review process was based on searching peer-reviewed articles in major scientific databases like Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Science Direct. The results of the review indicate significant findings. The walls move toward the water side and rotate when liquefaction occurs during seismic loading. Also, anchorage can reduce the seismic effects and prevent the sheet pile from rotating during seismic loading. Excess pore water pressure increases in the backfill during the seismic loading and is greatly influenced by the interaction between the soil and the sheet pile wall. The review also showed that Cantilever sheet pile results in the highest settlement, while installing anchors to support sheet piles reduces these settlements. Moreover, double-anchored sheet piles could minimize the rotation of the sheet pile by 75%-78% compared to cantilever sheet piles. Recent studies could predict Bending Moments of sheet pile walls in seismic conditions, although these studies were based on numerical simulations without validating the predictions based on experimental findings. This study contributes to identifying the latest advances in studying the seismic behavior of sheet pile walls and discovering gaps that have not yet been taken into account in order to improve the seismic design of waterfront sheet piles.

Keywords

Earthquake, Seismic, Sheet piles, Performance, Quay walls.

References

  1. Eiji Kohama et al., “Dynamic Behavior of a Steel Sheet Pile Quay Wall in the Full-Scale Experiment with Regard to Liquefaction,” The 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, Canada, pp. 1-12, 2004.
    [    Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  2. Susumu Iai, and Tomohiro Kameoka, “Finite Element Analysis of Earthquake Induced Damage to Anchored Sheet Pile Quay Walls,” Soils and Foundations, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 71-91, 1993.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  3. Ramin Motamed et al., “Behaviour of Pile Group Behind a Sheet Pile Quay Wall Subjected to Liquefaction-Induced Large Ground Deformation Observed in Shaking Test in E-Defense Project,” Soils and Foundations, vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 459-475, 2009.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  4. Ramin Motamed, and Ikuo Towhata, “Shaking Table Model Tests on Pile Groups Behind Quay Walls Subjected to Lateral Spreading,” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, vol. 136, no. 3, pp. 477-489, 2010.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  5. Masyoshi Sato, Masafumi Ogasawara, and Takashi Tazoh, “Reproduction of Lateral Ground Displacements and Lateral-Flow Earth Pressures Acting on Pile Foundations using Centrifuge Modeling,” International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, pp. 1-6, 2001.
    [    Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  6. T. Tazoh et al., “Centrifuge Tests on Pile Foundation-Structure Systems Affected by Liquefaction-Induced Soil Flow After Quay Wall Failure,” Advances in Deep Foundations, CRC Press, pp. 421-428, 2007.
    [    Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  7. M.M. Dewoolkar, H.Y Ko, and R.Y.S Pak, “Experimental Developments for Studying Static and Seismic Behavior of Retaining Walls with Liquefiable Backfills,” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, vol. 19, no. 8, pp. 583-593, 2000.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  8. Panagiota Tasiopoulou et al., “Pile-Group Response to Large Soil Displacements and Liquefaction: Centrifuge Experiments Versus a Physically Simplified Analysis,” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, vol. 139, no. 2, pp. 223-233, 2013.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  9. Chih-Wei Lu et al., “Estimation of Settlement after Soil Liquefaction for Structures Built on Shallow Foundations,” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, vol. 129, pp. 1-9, 2020.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  10. Chi-Chin Tsai, Yu-Wei Hwang, and Chih-Chieh Lu, “Liquefaction, Building Settlement, and Residual Strength of Two Residential Areas during the 2016 Southern Taiwan Earthquake,” Acta Geotechnica, vol. 15, pp. 1363-1379, 2020.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  11. Konstantinos N. Bazaios et al., “Effect of Structural Inertia on Liquefaction-Induced Settlements of Shallow Foundations,” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, vol. 164, 2023.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  12. Davide Forcellini, “Soil-Structure Interaction Analyses of Shallow-Founded Structures on a Potential-Liquefiable Soil Deposit,” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, vol. 133, 2020.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  13. Parsa Ghannadi, Seyed Sina Kourehli, and Andy Nguyen, The Differential Evolution Algorithm: An Analysis of More than Two Decades of Application in Structural Damage Detection (2001–2022), Data Driven Methods for Civil Structural Health Monitoring and Resilience, CRC Press, pp. 14-57, 2023.
    [    Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  14. Donald J. Anderson et al., “The Over-Prediction of Seismically Induced Soil Liquefaction During the 2016 Kumamoto, Japan Earthquake Sequence,” Geosciences, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 1-28, 2022.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  15. Yoshimichi Tsukamoto, and Kenji Ishihara, Advances in Soil Liquefaction Engineering, Springer Nature, pp. 1-285, 2022.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  16. Mohsin Abbas et al., “Earthquake Effects on Civil Engineering Structures and Perspective Mitigation Solutions: A Review,” Arabian Journal of Geosciences, vol. 14, 2021.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  17. Abhijit Debnath, Sunanda Debnath, and Sujit Kumar Pal, “Behaviour of Sheet Pile Wall on Sloping Ground for Strip Footing as Surcharge with Coir Geotextile Reinforced Backfill Soil,” Multiscale and Multidisciplinary Modeling, Experiments and Design, vol. 7, pp. 5429-5443, 2024.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  18. Meng Xiao et al., “Investigation on Dewatering Scheme Optimization, Water Levels, and Support Layout Influences for Steel Sheet Pile Cofferdams,” Buildings, vol. 15, no. 19, pp. 1-17, 2025.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  19. Ziguang Zhang et al., “Study on the Mechanical Response of FSP-IV Steel Sheet Pile Cofferdam and the Collaborative Mechanism of Sediment Control Technology in the Nanjing Water Intake Project,” Buildings, vol. 15, no. 15, pp. 1-18, 2025.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  20. H. Tanaka et al., “Study on Sheet Pile Wall Method as a Remediation Against Liquefaction,” The Twelfth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Auckland, New Zealand, pp. 1-8, 2000.
    [    Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  21. Susumu Yasuda et al., “Large-Scale Shaking Table Tests on Pile Foundations in Liquefied Ground,” 12th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, pp. 1-8, 2000.
    [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  22. W.D.L Finn, and N. Fujita “Piles in Liquefiable Soils: Seismic Analysis and Design Issues,” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, vol. 22, no. 9-12, pp. 731-742, 2002.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  23. Cong Zhang et al., “Study on Liquefaction Resistance of Pile Group by Shaking Table Test,” Advances in Civil Engineering, vol. 2022, no. 1, pp. 1-12, 2022.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  24. G. Cameron, and S. Hillier, Investigation and Assessment of Sheet Pile Quay Wall Structures at Sunderland's Riverside Quays, Proceedings of the Piling 2020 Conference, pp. 419-424, 2021.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  25. Kenichiro Miyashita, and Takashi Nagao, “A Simplified Deformation Estimation Method for Anchor Piles of Sheet Pile Quay Walls under Kinematic Forces during Earthquakes,” Engineering, Technology & Applied Science Research, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 10108-10115, 2023.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  26. E.R. Tolba et al., “Optimum Open Cell Sheet Pile (OCSP) Quay Wall System in Port Said,” DFI Journal - The Journal of the Deep Foundations Institute, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 1-23, 2021.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  27. Natarajan Dinesh, Subhadeep Banerjee, and Karpurapu Rajagopal, “Performance Evaluation of PM4Sand Model for Simulation of the Liquefaction Remedial Measures for Embankment,” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, vol. 152, 2022.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  28. Long Chen, Alborz Ghofrani, and Pedro Arduino, “Lessons Learned from LEAP-RPI-2020 Simulation Practice,” Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance Based Design in Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering, pp. 1763-1771, 2022.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  29. Rui Wang et al., “Influence of Centrifuge Test Soil-Container Friction on Seismic Sheet-Pile Wall Response in Liquefiable Deposit: Insights from Numerical Simulations,” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, vol. 149, no. 9, pp. 1-14, 2023.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  30. Hugo Javier Segaline Bustamante, “1-G Physical Modeling of Dynamic Soil-Structure Interaction for Semi-Buried Structures Using Continuous Monitoring in Space and Time,” Phd Thesis, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, 2022.
    [    Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  31. Mahdi O. Karkush et al., “Numerical Modeling of Sheet Pile Quay Wall Performance Subjected to Earthquake,” Geotechnical Engineering and Sustainable Construction, pp. 355-365, 2022.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  32.  E. Korre, M. Zeghal, and T. Abdoun, “Liquefaction in the Presence of Soil-Structure Interaction: Centrifuge Tests of a Sheet-Pile Quay Wall in LEAP-2020,” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, vol. 181, pp. 1-18, 2024.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  33. Sarra Lbibb, and Majid T. Manzari, “Understanding the Seismic Response of Sheet-Pile Walls in Liquefiable Soil: Key Mechanisms and the Role of Element Tests,” Japanese Geotechnical Society, vol. 10, no. 7, pp. 167-172, 2024.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  34. Jong-Chan Yoon, Su-Won Son, and Jin-Man Kim, “Comparison of Liquefaction Damage Reduction Performance of Sheet Pile and Grouting Method Applicable to Existing Structures Using 1-G Shaking Table,” Buildings, vol. 14, no. 9, pp. 2676-2696, 2024.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  35. Amin Pakzad, and Pedro Arduino, “Assessment of Soil Constitutive Models for Predicting Seismic Response of Sheet Pile Walls: A LEAP-2022 Project Study,” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, vol. 178, pp. 1-25, 2024.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  36. Devdeep Basu et al., “Investigation of Key Parameters and Issues in Simulating Centrifuge Model Tests of a Sheet-Pile Wall Retaining a Liquefiable Soil Deposit,” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, vol. 156, pp. 1-17, 2022.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  37. Partha Saha, Kazuki Horikoshi, and Akihiro Takahashi, “Performance of Sheet Pile to Mitigate Liquefaction-Induced Lateral Spreading of Loose Soil Layer Under the Embankment,” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, vol. 139, 2020.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  38. Anurag Sahare, and Kyohei Ueda, “Dynamic Centrifuge Modeling to Investigate the Deformation Mechanism of an Embedded Cantilever Retaining Wall with Submerged Backfill Conditions,” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, vol. 179, pp. 1-19, 2024.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  39. Vicente Mercado, Jose Duque, and Waleed El-Sekelly, “Numerical Modeling of LEAP-2022 Dynamic Centrifuge Tests Adopting a Multi-Surface Plasticity Model,” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, vol. 181, pp. 1-19, 2024.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  40. Wen-Yi Hung, Minh-Canh Tran, and Viet-Khuyen Bui, “Seismic Response of Anchored Sheet Pile Walls by Centrifuge Modelling Tests,” International Journal of Civil Engineering, vol. 20, pp. 1041-1065, 2022.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  41.  MarCom, “Seismic Design Guidelines for Port Structures,” PIANC the World Association for Waterborne Transport Infrastructure, pp. 1-3, 2001.
    [    Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  42. Anh-Dan Nguyen, Viet-Thanh Nguyen, and Young-Sang Kim, “Finite Element Analysis on Dynamic Behavior of Sheet Pile Quay Wall Dredged and Improved Seaside Subsoil Using Cement Deep Mixing,” International Journal of Geo-Engineering, vol. 14, pp. 1-18, 2023.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  43. Aya Abuo Zenab et al., “Dynamic Response of Sheet-Pile Wall with Liquefiable Backfill,” Geo-Congress, pp. 138-148, 2026.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  44. Sheng Zeng, and Mahdi Taiebat, “Cyclic Deformation Regimes in Liquefiable Sands and Sheet-Pile Systems,” SSRN, pp. 1-29, 2026.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  45. Shuai Ning, Qiang Ma, and Yuan Cao, “Stability Analysis of Coastal Sheet Pile Wall Considering Soil Weakening Induced by Earthquake Loading,” Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, vol. 13, no. 9, pp. 1-16, 2025.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  46. Sheng Zeng, Andrés Reyes, and Mahdi Taiebat, “Modeling Cyclic Liquefaction and System Response of a Sheet-Pile Supported Liquefiable Deposit: Insights from LEAP-2022,” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, vol. 179, pp. 1-16, 2024.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  47. Riccardo Conti, and Giulia M.B. Viggiani, “A New Limit Equilibrium Method for the Pseudostatic Design of Embedded Cantilevered Retaining Walls,” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, vol. 50, pp. 143-150, 2013.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  48. Susumu IAI, “Seismic Actions for Designing Geotechnical Works-ISO23469,” Journal of Japan Association for Earthquake Engineering, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 483-485, 2004.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  49. X. Zeng, and R.S. Steedman, “On the Behaviour of Quay Walls in Earthquakes,” Geotechnique, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 417-431, 1993.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  50.  Satish Manandhar et al., “Seismic Performance of Sheet Pile Walls in Liquefiable Soil Using Centrifuge Tests and an Assessment of Nonlinear Effective Stress Analysis using PM4Sand,” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, vol. 183, 2024.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  51. Xiaoyu Guan, and Gopal S.P. Madabhushi, “Numerical Modelling of Structures Adjacent to Retaining Walls Subjected to Earthquake Loading,” Geosciences, vol. 10, no. 12, pp. 1-18, 2020.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]