Advancements in Resistance Spot Welding of Titanium and its Alloys: A Comprehensive Review

International Journal of Mechanical Engineering

© 2024 by SSRG - IJME Journal

Volume 11 Issue 10

Year of Publication : 2024

Authors : Anishkumar H. Gandhi, Prashant Hasmukhray Solanki

10.14445/23488360/IJME-V11I10P104

How to Cite?

Anishkumar H. Gandhi, Prashant Hasmukhray Solanki, "Advancements in Resistance Spot Welding of Titanium and its Alloys: A Comprehensive Review," SSRG International Journal of Mechanical Engineering, vol. 11,  no. 10, pp. 36-54, 2024. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.14445/23488360/IJME-V11I10P104

Abstract:

Titanium (Ti) and its alloys have a superior combination of strength, low density and corrosion resistance, which are very valuable materials in the automotive, aerospace and medical industries. Due to its high contamination sensitivity, oxygen reactivity, and brittle intermetallic compounds, conventional fusion welding of Ti alloys is very difficult to achieve. Ti alloys provide better welds with little heat input or distortion. Therefore, Resistance Spot Welding (RSW) has emerged as a feasible method of joining Ti and its alloy sheets. Also, RSW of Ti and its alloys provides unique opportunities in welding technology. This review aims to analyze a comprehensive overview of RSW principles, fundamentals and applications in Ti and its alloys with discussions on alloy composition, surface preparation and nugget formation. This paper discusses the influence of some process parameters, including electrode force and tensile loading, welding current, sheet thickness, welding time, diameter and RSW issues and constraints. It also provides ideas for improving both performance and weld quality. This study also discusses the basics of RSW, commonly used Ti alloys, process parameter effects, key research findings and future research directions. The results obtained from the literature highlight research gaps in understanding material thickness, electrode diameter effects and the need for research on specific Ti alloys such as AMS 4902. Future research might focus on optimizing RSW for thicker sheets, determining optimal electrode sizes and examining welding behaviors of specific alloys to improve understanding and application in industrial fields.

Keywords:

Resistance spot welding, Titanium, Process parameters, Weld quality, Process optimization.

References:

[1] Chakkaravarthi Rajarajan et al., “Resistance Spot Welding of Advanced High Strength Steel for Fabrication of Thin-Walled Automotive Structural Frames,” Forces in Mechanics, vol. 7, pp. 1-13, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[2] Paweł Kustroń et al., “Development of Resistance Spot Welding Processes of Metal–Plastic Composites,” Materials, vol. 14, no. 12, pp. 1-20, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[3] Tanmoy Das, and Jinu Paul, “Interlayers in Resistance Spot-Welded Lap Joints: A Critical Review,” Metallography, Microstructure, and Analysis, vol. 10, pp. 3-24, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[4] Kang Zhou, and Ping Yao, “Overview of Recent Advances of Process Analysis and Quality Control in Resistance Spot Welding,” Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, vol. 124, pp. 170-198, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[5] Paluchamy Rajalingam et al., “A Comparative Study on Resistance Spot and Laser Beam Spot Welding of Ultra-High Strength Steel for Automotive Applications,” International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture, vol. 7, no. 5, pp. 648-661, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[6] Zoha Nasir, and M.I. Khan, “Resistance Spot Welding and Optimization Techniques Used to Optimize its Process Parameters,” International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 887-893, 2016.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[7] Delphine Mulaba-Kapinga et al., “Mechanical, Electrochemical and Structural Characteristics of Friction Stir Spot Welds of Aluminium Alloy 6063,” Manufacturing Review, vol. 7, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[8] Stefano Gialanella, and Alessio Malandruccolo, “Titanium and Titanium Alloys,” Aerospace Alloys, pp. 129-189, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[9] Fatih Bozkurt et al., “The Effect of Welding Parameters on Static and Dynamic Behaviors of Spot Welded Ti6Al4V Sheets,” Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, vol. 29, pp. 7468-7479, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[10] Luigi Panza et al., “Data-Driven Framework for Electrode Wear Prediction in Resistance Spot Welding,” IFIP International Conference on Product Lifecycle Management, pp. 239-252, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[11] He Peng et al., “Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Ultrasonic Spot Welded Mg/Al Alloy Dissimilar Joints,” Metals, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 1-16, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[12] Ichwan Fatmahardi et al., “An Exploratory Study on Resistance Spot Welding of Titanium Alloy Ti-6Al-4V,” Materials, vol. 14, no. 9, pp. 1-17, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[13] Kaisar Mahmud et al., “Geometrical Degradation of Electrode and Liquid Metal Embrittlement Cracking in Resistance Spot Welding,” Journal of Manufacturing Processes, vol. 61, pp. 334-348, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[14] Mukti Chaturvedi, and S. Arungalai Vendan, “Resistance Spot Welding and Design,” Advanced Welding Techniques, pp. 35-61, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[15] Das Tanmoy, “Resistance Spot Welding: Principles and its Applications,” Engineering Principles-Welding and Residual Stresses, pp. 1-87, 2022.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[16] Saurabh Akulwar et al., “Resistance Spot Welding Behavior of Automotive Steels,” Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals, vol. 74, pp. 601-609, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[17] Saurabh Pawar et al., “Characterizing Local Distribution of Microstructural Features and its Correlation with Microhardness in Resistance Spot Welded Ultra-Low-Carbon Steel: Experimental and Finite Element Characterization,” Materials Characterization, vol. 194, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[18] Nikhil Kumar et al., “In-Depth Evaluation of Micro-Resistance Spot Welding for Connecting Tab to 18,650 Li-Ion Cells for Electric Vehicle Battery Application,” The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol. 121, no. 9, pp. 6581-6597, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[19] Abdulkarim R. Omer Alzahougi, “Investigation and Simulation of Resistance Spot Welding Using DP600 Steel in Automotive Industry,” Karabuk University, 2020.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[20] Hayder H. Khaleel, Ibtihal A. Mahmood, and Fuad Khoshnaw, “Optimization Process of Double Spots Welding of High Strength Steel Using in the Automotive Industry,” Engineering and Technology Journal, vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 110-120, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[21] Heinrich Günter, and Gerson Meschut, “Joining of Ultra-High-Strength Steels Using Resistance Element Welding on Conventional Resistance Spot Welding Guns,” Welding in the World, vol. 65, no. 10, pp. 1899-1914, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[22] Sandhya D. Bhat et al., “Investigation of Thin Sheet Stainless Steel Resistance Spot Welds: Effect of Weld Current on Nugget Failure and Microstructure,” Materials Today: Proceedings, vol. 35, pp. 361-365, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[23] Haetham G. Mohammed, Turnad L. Ginta, and Mazli Mustapha, “The Investigation of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Resistance Spot Welded AISI 316L Austenitic Stainless Steel,” Materials Today: Proceedings, vol. 46, pp. 1640-1644, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[24] Deekshant Varshney, and Kaushal Kumar, “Application and Use of Different Aluminium Alloys with Respect to Workability, Strength and Welding Parameter Optimization,” Ain Shams Engineering Journal, vol. 12, no. 1, 1143-1152, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[25] Ming Huang et al., “Effect of External Magnetic Field on Resistance Spot Welding of Aluminum Alloy AA6061-T6,” Journal of Manufacturing Processes, vol. 50, pp. 456-466, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[26] Marwah S. Fakhri, Ibtihal A. Mahmood, and Ahmed Al-Mukhtar, “The Electrical and Mechanical Aspects of Aluminum and Copper Resistance Spot Weld Joints,” Engineering and Technology Journal, vol. 42, no. 01, pp. 195-205, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[27] Nikhil Kumar et al., “Substituting Resistance Spot Welding with Flexible Laser Spot Welding to Join Ultra-Thin Foil of Inconel 718 to Thick 410 Steel,” Materials, vol. 15, no. 9, pp. 1-15, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[28] Lacki Piotr, and Niemiro-Maźniak Judyta, “Numerical and Experimental Analysis of Lap Joints Made of Grade 2 Titanium and Grade 5 Titanium Alloy By Resistance Spot Welding,” Materials, vol. 16, no. 5, pp. 1-21, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[29] Marwan T. Mezher, Diego Carou, and Alejandro Pereira, “Exploring Resistance Spot Welding for Grade 2 Titanium Alloy: Experimental Investigation and Artificial Neural Network Modeling,” Metals, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 1-24, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[30] P. Bamberg et al., “Improvement of the Resistance Spot Welding of Al-Mg-Si Alloys by Using Cladding Technology: An Optical and Mechanical Characterization Study,” Journal of Advanced Joining Processes, vol. 5, pp. 1-11, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[31] Yu Zhang et al., “Effects of Al/Zn Interlayer on the Solidification Path and Liquation Cracking Susceptibility of AZ31/ZK61 Dissimilar Magnesium Alloy Resistance Spot Welding Joints,” Journal of Manufacturing Processes, vol. 75, pp. 60-71, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[32] Pintso Tshering Lepcha et al., “Recent Applications of Laser in Orthodontics,” International Journal of Medical Science and Current Research, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 26-32, 2022.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[33] Ariyanto Ariyanto et al., “Prototype of Resistance Spot Welding Material Preparation to Improve the Quality of Welding Joints,” International Journal of Engineering Business and Social Science, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 283-289, 2023.
[Google Scholar]
[34] Dawei Zhao et al., “Welding Quality Evaluation of Resistance Spot Welding Based on a Hybrid Approach,” Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing, vol. 32, pp. 1819-1832, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[35] Wei Dai et al., “Online Quality Inspection of Resistance Spot Welding for Automotive Production Lines,” Journal of Manufacturing Systems, vol. 63, pp. 354-369, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[36] Raman Kumar et al., “Impact of Process Parameters of Resistance Spot Welding on Mechanical Properties and Micro Hardness of Stainless Steel 304 Weldments,” International Journal of Structural Integrity, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 366-377, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[37] Yu Zhang et al., “In Situ Observations of the Strain Competition Phenomenon in Aluminum Alloy Resistance Spot Welding Joints during Lap Shear Testing,” Metals, vol. 13, no. 9, pp. 1-13, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[38] Soumyajit Das et al., “An Investigation on Metallurgical Features and Joint Characteristics of Ultrasonic Spot Welded Al-Ni Sheets,” Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology, vol. 38, no. 17, pp. 3203-3224, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[39] Maria Grazia Riccelli et al., “Welding Fumes, A Risk Factor for Lung Diseases,” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 17, no. 7, pp. 1-32, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[40] Shuo Cao et al., “Interaction between Al and other Alloying Atoms in α -Ti for Designing High Temperature Titanium Alloy,” Computational Materials Science, vol. 197, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[41] Manmeet Kaur, and K. Singh, “Review on Titanium and Titanium Based Alloys as Biomaterials for Orthopaedic Applications,” Materials Science and Engineering: C, vol. 102, pp. 844-862, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[42] C. Veiga, J.P. Davim, and A.J.R. Loureiro, “Properties and Applications of Titanium Alloys: A Brief Review,” Reviews On Advanced Materials Science, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 133-148, 2012.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[43] Y. Li et al., “Impact of Electromagnetic Stirring Upon Weld Quality of Al/Ti Dissimilar Materials Resistance Spot Welding,” Materials & Design, vol. 83, pp. 577-586, 2015.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[44] Iqbal Taufiqurrahman, Turnad Lenggo Ginta, and Mazli Mustapha, “The Effect of Holding Time on Dissimilar Resistance Spot Welding of Stainless Steel 316L and Ti6Al4V Titanium Alloy with Aluminum Interlayer,” Materials Today: Proceedings, vol. 46, no. 4, pp. 1563-1568, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[45] Fatih Bozkurt, and Fatih Hayati Çakır, “An Experimental Design of Spot Welding of Ti6Al4V Sheets and Numerical Modeling Approach,” Welding in the World, vol. 65, no. 5, pp. 885-898, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[46] Iqbal Taufiqurrahman et al., “The Effect of Aluminum Interlayer on Weld Strength, Microstructure Analysis, and Welding Parameters Optimization in Resistance Spot Welding of Stainless Steel 316L and Ti6Al4V Titanium Alloy,” Engineering Solid Mechanics, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 165-178, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[47] Sergei Butsykin et al., “Effects of Preheating and Slow Cooling Stages in Small-Scale Resistance Spot Welding of the Ti-2Al-1Mn Alloy,” The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol. 128, pp. 3011-3024, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[48] Tian-Le Lv et al., “Effect of Storage Time on the Surface Status and Resistance Spot Weldability of TiZr Pretreated 5182 Aluminum Alloy,” Journal of Manufacturing Processes, vol. 81, pp. 166-176, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[49] Jilin Xie et al., “Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Ultrasonic Spot Welding TiNi/Ti6Al4V Dissimilar Materials Using Pure Al Coating,” Journal of Manufacturing Processes, vol. 64, pp. 473-480, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[50] Lubna Ghalib, Ahmed K. Muhammad, and Sahib M. Mahdi, “Study the Effect of Adding Titanium Powder on the Corrosion Behavior for Spot Welded Low Carbon Steel Sheets,” Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials, vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 2665-2671, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[51] Minghui Du et al., “Effect of Surface Topography on Injection Joining Ti Alloy for Improved Bonding Strength of Metal-Polymer,” Surface and Coatings Technology, vol. 433, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[52] Jiang Yu et al., “Interfacial Evolution Behavior and Mechanical Properties of Ti/Steel Joint via Ultrasonic Seam Assisted Resistance Spot Welding with Cu Interlayer,” Journal of Manufacturing Processes, vol. 95, pp. 535-550, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[53] V. Dhinakaran et al., “A Review on the Categorization of the Welding Process of Pure Titanium and its Characterization,” Materials Today: Proceedings, vol. 27, pp. 742-747, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[54] Yassin Mustafa Ahmed et al., “Optimization of Multi-Layer Welding of Titanium Alloy,” Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology, vol. 10, no. 9, pp. 1029-1034, 2015.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[55] Chaoqun Zhang et al., “Interfacial Segregation of Alloying Elements during Dissimilar Ultrasonic Welding of AA6111 Aluminum and Ti6Al4V Titanium,” Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, vol. 50, pp. 5143-5152, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[56] Sunusi Marwana Manladan, “Microstructural Evolution and Mechanical Properties of Magnesium Alloy/Austenitic Stainless Steel Joints Produced by Resistance Spot Welding Techniques,” Doctoral Dissertation, University of Malaya, Malaysia, pp. 1-24, 2017.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[57] Bikash Kumar et al., “A Comparative Study on Microstructural and Mechanical Behaviour of Spot Welded Ti-6Al-4V Alloy in As-Welded and Solution Treated Condition,” Advances in Materials and Processing Technologies, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 2637-2651, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[58] Rukiye Ertan, “Mechanical Properties of Dissimilar Ti-Al Resistance Spot Welds,” Materials Testing, vol. 62, no. 6, pp. 597-602, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[59] Feng Chen et al., “The Effects of Welding Parameters on the Small Scale Resistance Spot Weldability of Ti-1Al-1Mn Thin Foils,” Materials & Design, vol. 102, pp. 174-185, 2016.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[60] Xinge Zhang et al., “Characteristics of Resistance Spot Welded Ti6Al4V Titanium Alloy Sheets,” Metals, vol. 7, no. 10, pp. 1-12, 2017.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[61] Iqbal Taufiqurrahman et al., “The Effect of Welding Current and Electrode Force on the Heat Input, Weld Diameter, and Physical and Mechanical Properties of SS316l/Ti6Al4V Dissimilar Resistance Spot Welding with Aluminum Interlayer,” Materials, vol. 14, no. 5, pp. 1-20, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[62] Muhammad Safwan Mohd Mansor et al., “Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Micro-Resistance Spot Welding Between Stainless Steel 316L and Ti-6Al-4V,” The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol. 96, pp. 2567-2581, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[63] Dawei Zhao et al., “Research on the Correlation between Dynamic Resistance and Quality Estimation of Resistance Spot Welding,” Measurement, vol. 168, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[64] Shuai Wang et al., “Resistance Element Welding of 7075 Aluminum Alloy to Ti6Al4V Titanium Alloy,” Journal of Manufacturing Processes, vol. 70, pp. 300-306, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[65] Dawei Zhao et al., “Performances of Regression Model and Artificial Neural Network in Monitoring Welding Quality Based on Power Signal,” Journal of Materials Research and Technology, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 1231-1240, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[66] Dawei Zhao, Yuanxun Wang, and Dongjie Liang, “Correlating Variations in the Dynamic Power Signature to Nugget Diameter in Resistance Spot Welding Using Kriging Model,” Measurement, vol. 135, pp. 6-12, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[67] Fei Liu et al., “Study on Microstructure and Properties of Resistance Spot Welding of Mg/Ti Dissimilar Materials,” Science and Technology of Welding and Joining, vol. 25, no. 7, pp. 581-588, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[68] Dawei Zhao et al., “Multi-Objective Optimization of the Resistance Spot Welding Process Using a Hybrid Approach,” Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing, vol. 32, pp. 2219-2234, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[69] Feng Chen et al., “Effect of Weld Nugget Size on Failure Mode and Mechanical Properties of Microscale Resistance Spot Welds on Ti–1Al–1Mn Ultrathin Foils,” Advances in Mechanical Engineering, vol. 10, no. 7, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[70] Xiaodong Wan, Yuanxun Wang, and Dawei Zhao, “Quality Estimation in Small Scale Resistance Spot Welding of Titanium Alloy Based On Dynamic Electrical Signals,” ISIJ International, vol. 58, no. 4, pp. 721-726, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[71] Piotr Lacki, and Judyta Niemiro, “Strength Evaluation of the Beam Made of the Titanium Sheets Grade 2 and Grade 5 Welded By Resistance Spot Welding,” Composite Structures, vol. 159, pp. 538-547, 2017.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[72] X.K. Yue et al., “Optimal Welding Parameters for Small-Scale Resistance Spot Welding with Response Surface Methodology,” Science and Technology of Welding and Joining, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 143-149, 2017.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[73] Xiaodong Wan et al., “A Comparison of Two Types of Neural Network for Weld Quality Prediction in Small Scale Resistance Spot Welding,” Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, vol. 93, pp. 634-644, 2017.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[74] Xiaodong Wan, Yuanxun Wang, and Dawei Zhao, “Grey Relational and Neural Network Approach for Multi-Objective Optimization in Small Scale Resistance Spot Welding of Titanium Alloy,” Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology, vol. 30, pp. 2675-2682, 2016.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[75] Xiaodong Wan et al., “Weld Quality Monitoring Research in Small Scale Resistance Spot Welding by Dynamic Resistance and Neural Network,” Measurement, vol. 99, pp. 120-127, 2017.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[76] V.A. Klimenov et al., “Structure of Ti-6Al-4V Nanostructured Titanium Alloy Joint Obtained by Resistance Spot Welding,” AIP Conference Proceedings, vol. 1698, no. 1, pp. 1-4, 2016.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[77] Anna Derlatka, Marcin Dyner, and Piotr Lacki, “Evaluation of Load-Bearing Capacity of Resistance Spot Welding (RSW) Joints Made of Titanium Gr 5 Sheets,” Key Engineering Materials, vol. 687, pp. 212-219, 2016.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[78] X. Wan, Y. Wang, and D. Zhao, “Quality Evaluation in Small-Scale Resistance Spot Welding by Electrode Voltage Recognition,” Science and Technology of Welding and Joining, vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 358-365, 2016.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[79] Xiaodong Wan, Yuanxun Wang. and Dawei Zhao, “Multi-Response Optimization in Small Scale Resistance Spot Welding of Titanium Alloy by Principal Component Analysis and Genetic Algorithm,” The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol. 83, pp. 545-559, 2016.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[80] S. Chen et al., “Online Monitoring and Evaluation of the Weld Quality of Resistance Spot Welded Titanium Alloy,” Journal of Manufacturing Processes, vol. 23, pp. 183-191, 2016.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[81] Dawei Zhao et al., “Process Analysis and Optimization for Failure Energy of Spot Welded Titanium Alloy,” Materials & Design, vol. 60, pp. 479-489, 2014.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[82] Y. Li, Y. Zhang, and Z. Luo, “Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Al/Ti Joints Welded by Resistance Spot Welding,” Science and Technology of Welding and Joining, vol. 20, no. 5, pp. 385-394, 2015.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[83] Longlong Hou et al., “Microstructure and Mechanical Property of Resistance Spot Welded Joint between Pure Titanium and Stainless Steel with Interlayer of Nb,” 5th International Conference on Advanced Design and Manufacturing Engineering, pp. 782-787, 2015.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[84] Christian Mathiszik et al., “General Approach for Inline Electrode Wear Monitoring at Resistance Spot Welding,” Processes, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 1-20, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[85] Eric Schulz et al., “Electrode Wear in Short-Pulse Resistance Spot Welding of Aluminum AA 6016-T4,” Welding in the World, vol. 65, pp.127-141, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[86] Malis Krishna Prasad Reddy et al., “Review on Different Welding Techniques of Titanium and its Alloys,” International Journal of Scientific Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 2395-1990, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[87] Yibo Liu, and Chaoqun Zhang, “Effects of Interlayer on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Resistance Spot Welded Titanium/Steel Joints: A Short Review,” Metals, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 1-14, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[88] Imtiaz Ali Soomro, Srinivasa Rao Pedapati, and Mokhtar Awang, “A Review of Advances in Resistance Spot Welding of Automotive Sheet Steels: Emerging Methods to Improve Joint Mechanical Performance,” The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol. 118, no. 5, pp. 1335-1366, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[89] Ilyas Renreng Ariyanto, Hairul Arsyad, and Muhammad Syahid, “Optimization Parameter Resistance Spot Welding Dissimilar Material-A Review,” AIP Conference Proceedings, vol. 2630, no. 1, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[90] Soumya Ranjan Giri, Bijaya Kumar Khamari, and Bikash Ranjan Moharana, “Joining of Titanium and Stainless Steel by Using Different Welding Processes: A Review,” Materials Today: Proceedings, vol. 66, pp. 505-508, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]